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A Sense of Doubt blog post #2241 - What's a Rhetorical Decision?
What is rhetoric?
At Lower Columbia College (LCC), in our composition courses (English 101 and English 102), we require students to make progress in and achieve some level of mastery of our six course outcomes listed below.
COURSE OUTCOMES
- Support an assertive thesis statement with adequate and
relevant sub-points, source information, analysis, logical reasoning and
explanations, and/or other appropriate evidence.
- Construct an easy-to-follow, logical progression of
ideas and information.
- Synthesize source ideas with original ideas, in
writing, effectively and ethically.
- Examine the writing situation to make rhetorical
decisions appropriate for the intended audience and context.
- Write sentences demonstrating correct use of grammar
and mechanics appropriate for the audience and context.
- Apply a writing process that includes generating
original ideas, drafting and revising for appropriate audience and
context, and editing for correctness and style.
One outcome always causes students to nonplussed: "Examine the writing situation to make rhetorical decisions appropriate for the intended audience and context."
And as we instructors read bloodless collection of fonts stuffed with deadwood and asbestos over and over again, people wonder why we're suicidal or working to change careers?
And so, how do we forge the superhero team-up, without the obligatory combat, to achieve our lofty goals?
What is Rhetorical Writing?
Rhetoric is the study of how words are used to persuade an audience. With a rhetorical analysis, people study how writing is put together to create a particular effect for the reader. So, on the flip side, rhetorical writing involves making conscious decisions to make your writing more effective. To break it down, there are 3 techniques of rhetorical writing to consider: ethos, logos, and pathos. Here are some things that you should know about these parts that make up the “rhetorical triangle.”
Ethos
Ethos refers to the writer, or you. To persuade your readers, you need to build your credibility. Readers want to know who you are, why you’re competent to speak on the subject, and what your motive for writing may be. You may want to discuss your background, including your education, employment, or personal experiences. If you don’t have a background that shows you’re an expert, you can use credible resources and data to support your ideas and show that you know what you’re talking about.
You can also build your credibility through your writing. Watch your tone, style, voice, organization, word choice, and grammar and punctuation. Superior writing will show your level of professionalism and intelligence to your readers.
Logos
Logos comes from the same root as logic. When considering the logos of your writing, look at the actual content and organization of your ideas. Have you included plenty of data, research, and statistics to support your claims? How well do you use reasoning to persuade your audience? Is there a logical flow to your paper?
Logos begins with the pre-writing process. As you outline your paper, start with a strong introduction paragraph with a solid thesis before going into your supporting paragraphs. Also, be sure to include plenty of evidence to strengthen your claims.
Pathos
The final piece of the rhetorical triangle is pathos, or the emotional appeal. This focuses on your audience and how you can appeal to their emotions. Emotions move people to act. If you want to persuade your readers to do something, appealing to their emotions will be very beneficial. So, try to connect with your audience by learning about them. Then, share stories, personal examples, questions to get your readers thinking about the subject, and other ways to appeal to their emotions.
The idea of rhetoric was first discussed by Aristotle in the 4th century. Since then, writers and speakers have used the rhetorical triangle to accomplish their goals of writing. As you work on the ethos, logos, and pathos in your rhetorical writing, you’ll find that you can achieve your writing goals and strengthen your persuasive arguments. To learn more about rhetorical devices you can use in your writing, don’t forget to check out our Professional Writing lessons!
That's not terrible. The basics of the rhetorical triangle are there. The foundations for all the decisions are in that text (above).
Mostly when we discuss rhetoric, we mean "argument." In academic writing, our ideal (and usual) rhetorical situation is to persuade an audience of the viewpoint we wish to assert.
This next resource looks more broadly at a variety of rhetorical situations, such as those to entertain and those simply to just inform.
Audience. Whenever we write, we are writing to someone, an audience. An audience can consist of a single person or a group of people. While some writing may also have secondary audiences, all writing has a primary audience (the main person or group of people the information is intended for). To be effective, our writing should be tailored to the intended audience. When we tailor our writing to the audience, consider the following characteristics:
- Experience with the subject
- Relationship to the writer
- Cultural, personal, and professional values
- Expectations
- Purpose for reading
- Age
Each of these characteristics should affect decisions you make about content, organization, appeals, word choice, style, and genre. For example, your word choice should be different when you write to a general audience vs. an expert in the topic you are discussing.
TIPS FOR DOING A RHETORICAL ANALYSIS
Questions to Consider
When conducting a rhetorical analysis, consider the following questions:
- Who is the intended audience, and how does the writer tailor the writing to that audience?
- What is the purpose, and how does the writer tailor the writing to that purpose?
- What appeals does the writer make and how? Are those appeals an appropriate choice for the intended audience and purpose?
- What kind of style and tone is used, and how are they suitable for the intended audience and purpose?
- What do the chosen writing strategies in the writing reveal about the writer or culture that made it?
This set of questions was adapted from “Basic Questions for Rhetorical Analysis,” a resource from Brigham Young University’s Silvae Rhetoricae: http://rhetoric.byu.edu/Pedagogy/Rhetorical%20Analysis%20heuristic.htm
Elements to Consider
When answering those questions, look at and consider the following elements of the writing:
- Word Choice/Diction
- Structure
- Tone
- Use of sources
- Evidence
- Genre
Rhetorical Triangle
The elements of the rhetorical situation interact with and influence one another. In learning to write an analysis, it is thus helpful to think about the relationship among these elements within the rhetorical triangle. By doing this, writers will be able to better understand how the elements of each text come together (often overlap) to make an argument or persuade an audience.
Ethos
The authority or credibility of the author. Can refer to any of the following: the actual character of the speaker/writer, the character of the writer as it is presented in a text, or as a series of ground rules/customs, which are negotiated between speaker, audience, and specific traditions or locations. The speaker must convince the audience of their credibility through the language they use and through the delivery, or embodied performance, of their speech.
Did you analyze ethos enough in your essay?
- Have you looked at what experiences or claims to authority qualify this author to speak or write?
- Have you considered the credibility and moral character of the writer/speaker?
- Have you considered the design or appearance of the text you are analyzing? Does it look professional? What can you say about the author based on the appearance of the text alone?
Pathos
Emotional appeals to the audience to evoke feelings of pity, sympathy, tenderness, or sorrow. The speaker may also want the audience to feel anger, fear, courage, love, happiness, sadness, etc.
Have you analyzed pathos enough in your essay?
- Have you considered how the author appeals to the emotions of the reader/viewer?◦How does the author establish a bond with his audience?
- How might the author change his strategy if he was trying to establish a bond with a different audience?
- Have you considered your own personal reaction to the background music of this advertisement?
- What kinds of feelings do the colors that the author uses provoke?
- What other images in the text provoke an emotional response? Why would the author include these images?
Logos
In classical rhetoric, logos is the means of persuasion by demonstration of the truth, real or apparent, the reasons or supporting information used to support a claim, the use of logic or reason to make an argument. Logos can include citing facts and statistics, historical events, and other forms of fact based evidence.
Do you analyze logos enough in your essay?
- How does the author back up his argument in this text? Does he incorporate facts, statistics, or numbers?
- Have you considered how logical the author’s argument is?
- Are the claims this author is making realistic?
- Does the author consider alternative arguments?
Kairos
The right time to speak or write; advantageous, exact, or critical time; a window of time during which action is most effective. (Ex. Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a dream speech was delivered at the right moment in history—in the heat of civil rights debates.)
Stasis
Literally, stasis is “a stand” or a “resting place” in an argument where opponents agree on what the issue is but disagree on what to do about it. The skilled rhetor is able to move the argument away from stasis. (Ex. Rhetor A asserts that abortion is murder. Rhetor B asserts that abortion is not murder. This is the point of stasis. The argument cannot rest here indefinitely. One of these rhetors must get the argument beyond the issue of murder.)
The Purdue page has a great deal of content on LOGICAL FALLACIES, which I feel are more of an advanced stage consideration in the writing process. Often these slips in logic are too much for students to consider early in the process. Or, maybe better, they should only consider two: support for and/or avoiding sweeping/hasty generalizations and abstractions as well as over-simplification (either/or).
This page is pretty disappointing and clearly outdone by other pages from other sources, mostly schools.
I try to careful curate the materials here. I was out on a limb a little bit with the first one from MAGOOSH, but I felt the author was very learned and credible and so included her credentials.
But what is REEDSY? https://blog.reedsy.com/rhetorical-devices/
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This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 734046.
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Reedsy is part of an entrepreneurial community that drives climate action. The Reedsy team continuously works on emissions reduction, and offsets the rest annually to reach climate neutrality.
We’re doing this because we care
We’re not just building Reedsy to make money and for the occasional feature in a renowned publication. After a few years building the company, it was important to us as founders to give back, which is why we started the #IWriteBecause campaign in May 2017. The campaign has reached over 6.7 million people to date and allowed us to donate to Room to Read, a non-profit organization that provides girls in Africa and Asia with access to education.
Posted on Jan 11, 2019
30+ Rhetorical Devices Everyone MUST Know
Anadiplosis
Anadiplosis is the repetition of the word from the end of one sentence to the beginning of the next. It has been used by everyone from Shakespeare to Yeats to Yoda:
“Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering.”
https://www.uvu.edu/writingcenter/docs/handouts/common_assignments/rhetoricalanalysis.pdf
This one is also more for performing rhetorical analysis on another's work, but it is a nice, portable PDF with a great deal of key information, especially "concessions and refutations."
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1/chapter/rhetorical-analysis/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-writing/chapter/types-of-rhetorical-modes/
The Importance of Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of effective and persuasive communication that is appropriate to a given situation. Although a thorough understanding of effective oral, written, and visual communication can take years of study, the foundation of such communication begins with rhetoric. With this foundation, even if you are just starting out, you can become a more powerful, more flexible writer. Rhetoric is key to being able to write effectively and persuasively in a variety of situations.
Every time you write or speak, you’re faced with a different rhetorical situation. Each rhetorical situation requires thoughtful consideration on your part if you want to be as effective and impactful as possible. Often, a successful essay or presentation is one that manages to persuade an audience to understand a question or issue in a particular way, or to respond to a question or issue by taking a particular action. Urging one’s reader to think or act in response to an important question or issue is one way of addressing the “so what?” element of analysis.
Many times, when students are given a writing assignment, they have an urge to skim the assignment instructions and then just start writing as soon as the ideas pop into their minds. But writing rhetorically and with intention requires that you thoroughly investigate your writing assignment (or rhetorical situation) before you begin to write the actual paper.
Thinking about concepts like purpose, audience, and voice will help you make good decisions as you begin your research and writing process.
Why, Oh Why?
When we decide to put an opinion out there, we’re doing it for a reason. Usually, the reason is that we want people to agree with our perspective and even take up the cause themselves. This is where you give your audience the why: why your point makes sense, why your suggested course of action is the best, why other ideas are not as sound, and why your thesis should be tattooed over their heart. Well, okay, maybe that’s going a little far.
Tattoos aren’t a bad example, though. Someone or something had to be pretty inspiring or convincing to get them to emblazon a symbol permanently on their body.
How can you be that convincing? There are two major strategies for answering the “why” of your thesis: arguing through logic and convincing through emotion.
Argumentation
We can think of a constructed “argument” not so much as an adversarial endeavor, but a search for the truth of a matter. Just as Supreme Court justices are charged with listening to all evidence before coming to a conclusion that will best serve the Republic, you may assume that your reader is seeking the most reasonable perspective to take, based on all the facts.
Your job, then, as the writer of an argument, is to present the reader with the arguments and evidence supporting both (or all) perspectives and reason out why your thesis is the most logical conclusion. The tone of such writing is dispassionate and objective; reason is king.
A common mistake about writing argumentation is presenting only the arguments that support the opinion you want your audience to adopt. That approach is less effective, because the reader’s mind naturally jumps to logical objections and counter-arguments, and if those doubts are not addressed, the reader remains suspicious and therefore unconvinced. When you contend with all the potential objections, however, the reader’s mind is satisfied and he or she can rest comfortably in your conclusion.
Another common error in argumentation is presenting a weakened argument for opposing opinions, in hopes that a cursory glance at and dismissal of the counter-arguments will satisfy the readers’ doubts. Most readers will see through this strategy, though, and lose respect for both the writer and the argument as a result. You want your thesis to be strong enough to stand up to strict critical scrutiny and demonstrate that strength in your argument.
For these reasons, argumentation is a rigorous endeavor. You usually won’t even begin to formulate a thesis for such a paper until you’ve done extensive research, because you’ll want to be well-educated on the topic before coming to any conclusions yourself. The good news is that your process in deciding what you believe is fodder for informing your audience: once you’ve done the discovery, you can lead your readers on the path you yourself followed to the conclusion that feels natural to you. If your own search was thorough enough, and if you express it clearly, your audience will be more likely to agree with you, or at least to respect your opinion.
Consider an argument, then, a sincere effort to find the “truth,” or at least the best option for the situation in question.
Argumentation and Persuasion
Argumentation and persuasion are rhetorical modes used to convince others of an opinion, belief, or the merits of a course of action.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Determine the purpose and structure of argumentation and persuasion.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
- Argumentation and persuasion are both used to convince others of an opinion, belief, or the merits of a course of action.
- Argumentation uses logic and objective support to convince the audience of the veracity of an argument.
- Persuasion appeals to the emotions of the audience to convince them of the inherent value of a stance.
- There are appropriate settings in which to use both argumentation and persuasion.
- The decision to use either argumentation or persuasion (or both) will guide the writer as to the writing process and the selection of primary literary tools.
- There is a generally accepted structure for a persuasive/argumentative essay that allows within it the opportunity for creative expression.
Key Terms
- logos: A method of convincing people through logic and reason.
- ethos: A method of convincing the reader/listener through the credibility of the writer/speaker.
- pathos: A method of persuading others by creating an emotional response in them.
Why, Oh Why?
When we decide to put an opinion out there, we’re doing it for a reason. Usually, the reason is that we want people to agree with our perspective and even take up the cause themselves. This is where you give your audience the why: why your point makes sense, why your suggested course of action is the best, why other ideas are not as sound, and why your thesis should be tattooed over their heart. Well, okay, maybe that’s going a little far.
Tattoos aren’t a bad example, though. Someone or something had to be pretty inspiring or convincing to get them to emblazon a symbol permanently on their body.
How can you be that convincing? There are two major strategies for answering the “why” of your thesis: arguing through logic and convincing through emotion.
Argumentation
We can think of a constructed “argument” not so much as an adversarial endeavor, but a search for the truth of a matter. Just as Supreme Court justices are charged with listening to all evidence before coming to a conclusion that will best serve the Republic, you may assume that your reader is seeking the most reasonable perspective to take, based on all the facts.
Your job, then, as the writer of an argument, is to present the reader with the arguments and evidence supporting both (or all) perspectives and reason out why your thesis is the most logical conclusion. The tone of such writing is dispassionate and objective; reason is king.
A common mistake about writing argumentation is presenting only the arguments that support the opinion you want your audience to adopt. That approach is less effective, because the reader’s mind naturally jumps to logical objections and counter-arguments, and if those doubts are not addressed, the reader remains suspicious and therefore unconvinced. When you contend with all the potential objections, however, the reader’s mind is satisfied and he or she can rest comfortably in your conclusion.
Another common error in argumentation is presenting a weakened argument for opposing opinions, in hopes that a cursory glance at and dismissal of the counter-arguments will satisfy the readers’ doubts. Most readers will see through this strategy, though, and lose respect for both the writer and the argument as a result. You want your thesis to be strong enough to stand up to strict critical scrutiny and demonstrate that strength in your argument.
For these reasons, argumentation is a rigorous endeavor. You usually won’t even begin to formulate a thesis for such a paper until you’ve done extensive research, because you’ll want to be well-educated on the topic before coming to any conclusions yourself. The good news is that your process in deciding what you believe is fodder for informing your audience: once you’ve done the discovery, you can lead your readers on the path you yourself followed to the conclusion that feels natural to you. If your own search was thorough enough, and if you express it clearly, your audience will be more likely to agree with you, or at least to respect your opinion.
Consider an argument, then, a sincere effort to find the “truth,” or at least the best option for the situation in question.
Tools for Argumentation
The most effective tool in argumentation is solid support for each aspect of the argument. You will create an ethos of credibility to the extent your reader finds you trustworthy. To this end, you will need to consider both the effectiveness of the source for making your point (whether it is a quote, facts, or data ), as well as the reader’s perception of the source of that information.
- Reliable research has certain markers that make it credible. In a quantitative study, for example, sample size is important to ensure the data is truly representative. Data saturation is a key in qualitative research. An example of unreliable research would be the claim, “Voted best fish taco in the world three years in a row!” Who voted? The kitchen staff? Though you don’t have to be a researcher yourself to make quality arguments, you need to learn where to look to find studies that are, in fact, reliable. Which brings us to the next point.
- You’ll also need to assess the perceived reliability of the source. Studies funded by cigarette companies on the effects of cigarette smoke are less likely to find deleterious effects than studies commissioned by the National Institutes of Health, or at least we might logically assume that. You’ll want to avoid any appearance of bias, along with any actual bias. If your reader perceives your sources as objective and reliable, he or she will trust you and be willing to follow your argument to its conclusion.
Persuasion
If you’re less “Dr. Spock” and more “Captain Kirk,” though, you might be more inclined toward persuading your audience to believe as you do. We’ve all had friends who can talk us into almost anything. How do they do that? They get us in trouble by effectively prodding our emotions.
Your intentions, of course, will be noble, but the technique works either way.
Persuasive writing is about convincing the reader that your opinion is the one he or she should adopt. The focus is on the opinion itself, rather than any counter-arguments, and the reader is led (or lured) step by step to feel increasingly more comfortable with the thesis. The tone can be more aggressive and passionate than in argumentation, because the writer is appealing to the reader’s emotions, rather than to the logical mind.
You’re in a plane for the purpose of skydiving with your daredevil buddy, but you’ve never done it before and you are hesitant to jump. Your friend doesn’t discuss the possibility of your leg breaking or the chute not opening. No, instead your friend talks of the thrill you’ll feel as you soar through the air, the confidence it will give you to have done something so daring, and the bragging rights you’ll have once you’re on the ground. There might be a statistic or two thrown in about how few people get hurt skydiving, and there may even be a warning about what you’ll feel like if you don’t jump, but mostly your friend is there to inspire.
Naturally, you jump.
How does one translate such prodding into writing? It’s all about conviction and anticipation. Your friend intuited your objections, but rather than mentioning them, simply countered with an affirmation of the thesis (jumping out of airplanes is great). The benefits of believing this way are going to make all counterarguments obsolete, so rather than entertain those, we’ll just keep stepping up the emotional pressure to embrace the thesis.
Tools for Persuasion
The most effective tools in persuasive writing are examples and sensory images.
- Examples (illustrative stories) help your reader identify with someone experiencing the plight you describe. Identification with another being is a powerful pull on the emotions. “The homeless man, finding the shelter closed once again due to overcrowding, casts his eyes to the bustling sidewalk, hoping someone, anyone, will catch his eye and offer help, even if it’s only the feeling of connection to another human being.”
- Sensory images, unlike logic, appeal to our emotional center. Reading or hearing how something looks, tastes, smells, sounds, or feels can create a visceral response in us. “He sighs and shuffles off to the tattered old refrigerator box that provides little insulation from the icy ground and reeks of the garbage piled inches from his face.”
Choose Your Method
You may have come to the conclusion that an argumentative essay is a more sophisticated way of getting someone to see a particular perspective. It’s true that the argument is usually considered the more formal writing style, but there are cases in which pathos may be more appropriate than logos. How do you know which to choose?
- Audience – Know to whom your words will be directed. Are your readers more likely to be swayed by peer-reviewed research or emotional appeals?
- Occasion – There’s something to be said for gauging the right time for facts and the appropriate time for conviction. Are you writing a State of the Union address, where you’re hoping the audience will leap to its feet with applause every few paragraphs, or are you explaining to your board of directors why your company should go public in six months?
- Purpose – Similarly, you’ll want to keep the end-game in mind. Asking your readers to take an immediate action might require a different approach than asking them to permanently alter their belief system.
Here is an example of the use of a persuasive piece of writing. Do you think it would have been more effective as a logical argument?
The Black Panther Party’s 1966 Ten Point Program outlined demands and beliefs that the organization believed would begin to repair some of the damage of slavery and racism in the United States. Here is #5 from the “What We Want Now!” section (note that even the exclamation point hints at the persuasive nature of the argument):
“We want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in the present day society.”
Over a decade earlier, Thurgood Marshall had presented a petition along the same lines to the Supreme Court, only he chose to use argumention:
Although he raised a variety of legal issues on appeal, the most common one was that separate school systems for blacks and whites were inherently unequal, and thus violate the “equal protection clause” of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Furthermore, relying on sociological tests, such as the one performed by social scientist Kenneth Clark, and other data, he also argued that segregated school systems had a tendency to make black children feel inferior to white children, and thus such a system should not be legally permissible.
Though both pleas relate to offering a stronger system of education for people of color, the context for each assertion was different. One had as an audience the general public; the other, at least initially, spoke to court justices. The occasion of arguing before the Supreme Court required Marshall to make a formal and objective case, whereas the Black Panthers were seeking a dramatic shift in the public perception of the status quo. Marshall’s purpose was to build an argument that would stand up to scrutiny for decades or even centuries to come, in any instance of societal segregation, and while the Black Panthers would likely have agreed with that goal, their immediate purpose was to lift the veil of white privilege.
You might notice, though, that there are elements of persuasive language in Marshall’s argument: he speaks of “a tendency to make black children feel inferior,” which hints at pathos. The reason we wouldn’t categorize it as such, though, is because he is citing sociological data: he is presenting this tendency as a fact, not trying to manipulate the court’s emotions.
Similarly, the organization of the Black Panthers’ Ten Point Program might seem akin to a logical argument, but the content of “What We Want Now!” is grounded in ideas of right and wrong, rather than objective data.
So, impassioned plea or reasoned argument, let’s look at the steps to creation.
Steps to Creating an Argument
- Consider your topic. What are some questions that come up for you about this topic? What do you expect to find as you research it? How might people disagree about the topic?
- Research the topic. Find out what’s being said about the topic on both or all sides of the issue. Look at the primary writers or speakers championing each perspective and allow yourself time to marinate in each of their ideas.
- Choose the perspective you agree with. Having read material representing each general idea about the topic, you will likely find yourself agreeing with one or another. Formulate a preliminary thesis statement based on your conclusions.
- Go back to the literature to support your thesis statement, but be open to changing it if more information comes to light.
- Identify each counterargument, finding the most cogent resources for each, and make your best argument against these using the most applicable and reliable sources to support your perspective.
- Organize your paper in a way that will most effectively anticipate the reader’s mental journey through the topic.
Steps to Persuasion
- Search your feelings for a response to the topic. What kind of emotions come up around it? What is your initial gut reaction to a statement for and a statement against the topic?
- Decide what you want to convince others about concerning this issue. What feels meaningful to you concerning this topic? Create a thesis statement that reflects this desire.
- Outline an argument based on what you believe and feel, then dive into the literature to find out what others have had to say on the topic. You’ll want to look at objections to your opinion as well as supporting evidence in order to anticipate your reader’s thought process, even if you won’t be including all of these references in your paper.
- Find or create stories and sensory imagery that will speak to the reader’s emotions.
- Organize your paper in a way that puts increasing pressure on the reader’s emotions. Often, this means beginning with imagery that orients the reader to the situation and then intensifying the pathos as you go. Keep counterarguments in mind as well, as you attend to organization.
If you are combining the approaches, you’ll want to create your paper based on the steps to creating an argument and then incorporate sensory imagery, stories, and impassioned pleas into the structure as appropriate — often in the introduction and conclusion.
Structure of the Argumentative and Persuasive Essay
While you can use argumentation and persuasion in any type of writing, a common venue is the essay, in which you’re asked to argue for or against a position.
While there are no hard and fast rules to structuring your essay, there are some generally accepted conventions that will give you a head start in creating your argument and allow you to focus on content.
Introduction
Think of the introduction as an inverted triangle; a funnel. You want to begin with a broad introduction to the realm of thought and end with a very specific thesis that the rest of the paper will prove. The purpose here is to capture the reader’s interest and quickly move him or her to an understanding of your point of focus.
- Introductory sentence. This is where you can spark your audience’s interest in the topic. You can use pathos here or make a bold statement of fact, either of which can serve as a “hook” to capture the reader’s attention.
- Linking sentence. Here, you narrow in on your topic more specifically. Again, you may choose to accomplish this through imagery, a statement of fact, or by simple explanation. By the end of this sentence (which could actually be as many sentences as you need to accomplish the task), your audience should know the problem you wish to address and why it’s important.
- Argument #1. Here, you’ll preview the first argument in favor of your thesis, which you’ll expound on in the first body paragraph. You haven’t stated your thesis yet; these three sentences will lead your reader to it naturally. So think of these three (or more) sentences as priming the pump for the rush of clarity that is your thesis statement.
- Argument #2. Again, this sentence is merely a statement of what you’ll expound on in the body of the paper: this time, in the second body paragraph.
- Argument #3. Here, you’re simply stating the argument for the third body paragraph.
- Thesis statement. The thesis statement should flow naturally out of the arguments (hence, the funnel analogy). It should be clear, concise, and one-sided.
Body Paragraphs
Each of the paragraphs in the body of your paper will serve the thesis statement. Each of these paragraphs will have its own point to prove related to the thesis. A well-structured argument will grow stronger with each paragraph, whether the technique is argumentation or persuasion.
Each body paragraph (and three to five paragraphs for a body are the standard guideline) should contain
- A topic sentence. Also called a “sub-thesis,” the topic sentence is a main point that supports your thesis statement. You can refer to the thesis statement in this sentence to remind your audience how this main point relates to it.
- Evidentiary sentences. Here is where you offer evidence and explanations to support the veracity of the topic sentence. Rather than a simple listing of supporting evidence, though, you’ll want to form a coherent paragraph linking each item thoughtfully. Phrases like, “not only,” “therefore,” “in addition to,” and “moreover” are commonly found linking pieces of evidence in a body paragraph.
- Concluding sentence. Here, you will link the first topic sentence — the one you just gave evidence for — to the second topic sentence which you are about to introduce. Think of this sentence as a vital link of a chain. Without it, your audience will not be able to follow your line of thought. How does the point you just proved relate to the one you’re about to prove?
Counterarguments
In an argumentative essay, you can include counterargument paragraphs either directly after the main point they attempt to contradict (thereby getting the objection out of the reader’s mind right away), or you can entertain counterarguments in a series of body paragraphs after your main points supporting the thesis. The structure mimics the body paragraphs but instead of offering evidence for the topic sentence, you are offering evidence disproving the counterargument.
Persuasive essays generally do not entertain counterarguments.
Conclusion
Just as the introduction began broadly and ended with the specific point of the thesis, your conclusion will begin with the thesis and broaden. Ideally, it will also link back to the imagery or facts that began the introduction. Such linking works with the reader’s memory to create a satisfying feeling of completion.
- Restatement of the thesis. In this first concluding sentence, you remind the reader of the thesis statement you have now given evidence for. Common lead-ins for this sentence are phrases like, “It is clear now that…,” “We have seen how…” and “Given the preponderance of evidence…”
- Summary of the main points. Here, you’ll restate the main points of your argument. You can present them in a different way here than in the body of the paper, perhaps by combining them or incorporating them into a story or image.
- Broadening statement. This is where you can link back to the first sentence of the introductory paragraph. Has the sad image you led with found a happy ending with your thesis in place? Might the disturbing facts turn around based on following your main points?
Keep in mind that while you don’t want to sound like you’re following a script or a formula and simply plugging in your topic, using a structure can allow your creativity to shine by allowing you to focus on content.
Have fun with your argument! Play with the ideas until you feel a spark ignite. Come at it from various angles and surprise your reader with new perspectives. Arguing your position can be both effective and enjoyable— both for you and your audience.
THE RHETORICAL SITUATION by Amber Lemiere (LCC)
Finally, we must remember that there is a blind spot that cuts through the entire rhetorical situation. We can never know the fullness of the truths that a text relies on to make its points, investigate everything about the author's identity, or understand fully the effects of the design, the complexities of our audiences, the scope of the consequences, or the richness of the context (especially beyond our own place and time). We can, therefore, never fully analyze/critique a text or create a perfect one ourselves. Thus, we become stronger critics and communicators when we acknowledge our blind spot by 1) recognizing the limits and constraints of a single text, 2) setting our own limits and constraints and making them known, 3) minimizing our blind spot through inquiry and conversation, and 4) admitting our limits, such as bias or personal experience. So, the final way to analyze the effectiveness/ineffectiveness of a text is to ask if the author has communicated their purpose with a level of humility and wisdom, acknowledging the scope of their blind spot. If not, one might argue that blind passion on the part of the author serves the audience well at times. In the end, it's all up for debate.
Argumentative Claims
- The design does/does not do the purpose justice (in what ways?).
- The text is brilliantly designed to impact the audience, but it is based upon faulty/dangerous information that has the potential to harm society. Thus, the audience needs to be more alert/skeptical in analyzing the text's captivating persuasive techniques.
- The text presents a pertinent message, but the author has no authority to speak on the matter and has, therefore, done more damage than good in promoting the message to an audience who will now discard the ideas on the basis of their distrust for the deliverer of the message.
- The purpose of the text is one of the most important messages we can deliver to an audience, but the way it is designed hardly does justice to the nuance and importance/urgency of the message as the author fails to captivate the audience through the rhetorical appeal of pathos (or logos, or ethos).
- The author has used humor (or something else specific), brilliantly, to captivate the audience with a message that might, otherwise, be lost/overlooked in a context that has created numbness toward the issues.
- Etc...
That's all for now. I will probably have more to share on this score again in another future installment.
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- Bloggery committed by chris tower - 2104.07 - 10:10
- Days ago =2105 days ago
- New note - On 1807.06, I ceased daily transmission of my Hey Mom feature after three years of daily conversations. I plan to continue Hey Mom posts at least twice per week but will continue to post the days since ("Days Ago") count on my blog each day. The blog entry numbering in the title has changed to reflect total Sense of Doubt posts since I began the blog on 0705.04, which include Hey Mom posts, Daily Bowie posts, and Sense of Doubt posts. Hey Mom posts will still be numbered sequentially. New Hey Mom posts will use the same format as all the other Hey Mom posts; all other posts will feature this format seen here.
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